Have muslims used the same approach to devide the western and eastern roman empire, invade and control Spain, topple Constantinople and spread Islam far and wide.
Divide and conquer from within and without-the method used by the modern terrorist as they drove UN forces from Palestine. Can they really be the force that brings on the final judgement? What is there to critize if one is a beliver in Islam?
Are the radical muslims really radical? Some random thoughts.
Tuesday, December 06, 2005
Thursday, December 01, 2005
Promote the Christian faith in Islamic communities and sought to ransom Christian captives
St. Nicholas Tavigli
Feastday: December 5
Franciscan martyr of Jerusalem, also called Nicholas Tavelic. A native of Dalmatia, he entered the Franciscans and subsequently worked in the region around Bosnia, especially among the Paterine heretics. He then went to the Holy Land to preach among the Muslims and was martyred at Jerusalem. He was canonized in 1970 by Pope Paul VI.
St. Peter Pascual
Feastday: December 6
1227-1300
Bishop and preacher. A native of Valencia, Spain, he entered the priesthood and was ordained about 1250. Known for his intelligence, he was named tutor to the son of the king of Aragon. Later he became bishop of Jaen, although the diocese was technically under the dominion of the Moors. Nevertheless, he preached extensively to promote the Christian faith in Islamic communities and sought to ransom Christian captives being held by Moorish captors. He was martyred in Granada
Feastday: December 5
Franciscan martyr of Jerusalem, also called Nicholas Tavelic. A native of Dalmatia, he entered the Franciscans and subsequently worked in the region around Bosnia, especially among the Paterine heretics. He then went to the Holy Land to preach among the Muslims and was martyred at Jerusalem. He was canonized in 1970 by Pope Paul VI.
St. Peter Pascual
Feastday: December 6
1227-1300
Bishop and preacher. A native of Valencia, Spain, he entered the priesthood and was ordained about 1250. Known for his intelligence, he was named tutor to the son of the king of Aragon. Later he became bishop of Jaen, although the diocese was technically under the dominion of the Moors. Nevertheless, he preached extensively to promote the Christian faith in Islamic communities and sought to ransom Christian captives being held by Moorish captors. He was martyred in Granada
Sunday, July 24, 2005
The Janissaries
The sultan ordered a tax to be paid by every Christian family: a son. The sons that would go on to form the elite unit known as the Janissaries.
The idea to raise a corps of Christian soldiers – from the same stock as those who had manned the elite units of the Roman Foreign Legion – was the brainchild of Sultan Murad I. The name Janissaries comes from an expression used by a Muslim Holy Man of that era, who called the converted Christian boys "Yeni Ceri" or the "New Troops."
Azziz told WorldNetDaily that the sultan set careful guidelines in choosing recruits for the Janissaries. He explained that the Islamic Empire was expanding faster than the capability of the Muslim troops to hold the ground they had taken.
"Every five years, the sultan sent in his representatives to take a slave tax. Only one Christian boy could be taken from any one family in the Balkans. The boys would be between the ages of 8 and 18. An only son could not be taken. There is also some evidence that if the parents were ill, the sultan would not take a son from that particular family."
The Imperial scribe would record the names of the families and the boys taken. He then gave each boy five gold pieces, which would help them survive a march hundreds of miles long back to Turkey.
Into the Islamic world
And so, as is the case today in Sudan, the Islamic invaders took the Christian boys to a world totally foreign from their upbringing.
The new Christian boys were immediately turned over to the sultan. He was to be their king. They were his property – destined to form the sultan’s elite infantry units.
"Islamic law forbids that other Muslims be sold into slavery," Azziz told WorldNetDaily. "But not infidels."
A Turkish mosque in North Cyprus
Once the Janissaries had recovered from their long trek from the Balkans, they were put under both mental and physical tests by the Turks.
They were trained for eight years in archery, swordsmanship, horsemanship, wrestling and weightlifting. Some would go on to work on the estates of Turkish nobles as farmhands. Others learned skills like blacksmithing, masonry and carpentry.
The very best Janissaries were sent on to the sultan’s palace, where they would form his elite bodyguards. Presiding over this entire training process was the chief eunuch, who served the sultan with unwavering loyalty. The sultan called the Janissaries "my children." In the back of his mind, the sultan also knew that he was depleting the strength of his subjects in the Balkans and their ability to resist Ottoman occupation.
In time, some of these European Christian converts to Islam became leaders in the government and the military of the Ottoman Empire. Yet how was this possible?
Azziz believes he has the answer: "Constantine the Great and Diocletian were from Illyria in the Balkans and became great leaders in Roman times. As such, it is not surprising that the Janissaries carried on that intellectual tradition."
Another peripheral point is that, historically, the Crusaders were considered enemies of the Eastern Church in the Balkans – a rift the pope apologized for only this year. The ancestors of the families of the Balkan-born Janissaries hated the Romans from ancient times and directed that historical hatred at the pope, the Crusaders and even the Roman alphabet. It is also a phenomenon that has lasted into the present day.
In the year 1444, the pope called for a Holy War and a New Crusade. The pope was alarmed at the Muslim encroachment into Eastern Europe from Asia Minor.
The forces of Christendom were to soon have their first showdown with the Janissaries at the Battle of Varna. It was here that the sultan’s Janissaries faced off with the King of Hungary, French knights, a collection of European mercenaries and Vlad II – father of Vlad Tepes, who stood as a model for Bram Stoker's fictional "Dracula."
Riding and shooting accurately with bows and arrows on their camels and horses, the Janissaries won the battle of Varna. The King of Hungary was killed. Yet the victory came at great cost in blood and treasure to the Turks.
"May Allah never again grant me such a victory!" exclaimed the sultan.
About nine years after their victory at Varna, Memet II set his sights on Constantinople – the jewel of all Christian outposts in the Western world. He took up residence in a special castle six miles outside of Constantinople to prepare for the siege. The rulers of the city had set an iron chain across the "Golden Horn," which protected the harbor around Constantinople from invasion.
At the time, Constantinople was occupied by the remnant of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. The last emperor, Michael Paleologus, died fighting the Turks on the great city walls – which had been constructed a thousand years earlier by the Roman emperor Theodosius II. The Crusaders had taken the city by ruse in 1204 during what is sometimes referred to as the "businessman's crusade" and looted numerous items – many of which grace the city of Venice to this day. They were finally expelled by the Byzantine Greeks about 80 years later.
On April 2, 1453, the Islamic troops began their attack on the city, assaulting the walls around Constantinople. On the maritime front, Christian galleys burned Turk ships and killed 12,000 Islamic men. The Islamic admiral who presided over this debacle was whipped in pubic and all his money divided up amongst the Janissaries.
The sultan then ordered the rest of the Islamic naval vessels to be carried over land past the aforementioned chain around the Golden Horn. Over 10,000 Turks attacked the city the next day. The Janissaries took the city and Memet II made Constantinople the new capitol of Islam. He then changed the name of the city to Istanbul.
The Janissaries continued to train for war. They were, as slaves, forbidden to drink any alcohol, gamble or even to get married.
"They lived like monks trapped – albeit willingly – in a monastery," said Azziz.
To ensure the loyalty of the Janissaries, the sultan paid them bonuses, gave them a salary paid every three months and new clothing once per year. The Janissaries also were able to purchase almost any military weapons they wished for. Also, these elite fighters maintained their own treasury and commissary.
As they marched into Belgrade and Budapest to the beat of cymbals and drums, all of Christiandom trembled before them. (Under the direction of Suleyman the Magnificent, the Janissaries made it all the way into Austria).
The end of the Janissaries
By the year 1600, the ruling sultan needed more soldiers and mercenaries and slaves than ever. Unable to keep up with this growing need with the quota from the Balkans, he allowed – for the first time – Turks and native-born Muslims to enter the ranks of the Janissaries.
"This immediately destroyed the esprit de corps that had forged the fighting ethos of this elite unit," said Azziz. "The Janissaries then became involved in sexual relations with the sultan’s harem and also planned and carried out assassinations of the sultans."
In the early 1800s, Sultan Selim III tried to bring European-style military reforms to the Janissaries. In fact, Selim wanted to bring Turkey into modern times by imitating all things European. The Janissaries rebelled and killed Selim. In 1826, the Janissaries attempted a coup. The ruling sultan, Mahmud II, was outraged.
Mahmud II turned his cannons on the Janissaries trapped in their barracks at the Hippodrome near the Topkapi Palace.
"Over 4,000 Janissaries perished, yet they were a far cry from the corps of the loyal Christian converts who had served the Ottoman Empire so well throughout the centuries," concluded Azziz.
"It was a sad ending to a romantic and mysterious group of men. Yes, the Janissaries were a tough breed. Acts of desertion, cowardice and disobedience in their corps were punishable by death. The closest thing to the Janissaries in modern times, in my opinion, is the French Foreign Legion or, perhaps, the Ghurkas. We may never see their kind again."
The idea to raise a corps of Christian soldiers – from the same stock as those who had manned the elite units of the Roman Foreign Legion – was the brainchild of Sultan Murad I. The name Janissaries comes from an expression used by a Muslim Holy Man of that era, who called the converted Christian boys "Yeni Ceri" or the "New Troops."
Azziz told WorldNetDaily that the sultan set careful guidelines in choosing recruits for the Janissaries. He explained that the Islamic Empire was expanding faster than the capability of the Muslim troops to hold the ground they had taken.
"Every five years, the sultan sent in his representatives to take a slave tax. Only one Christian boy could be taken from any one family in the Balkans. The boys would be between the ages of 8 and 18. An only son could not be taken. There is also some evidence that if the parents were ill, the sultan would not take a son from that particular family."
The Imperial scribe would record the names of the families and the boys taken. He then gave each boy five gold pieces, which would help them survive a march hundreds of miles long back to Turkey.
Into the Islamic world
And so, as is the case today in Sudan, the Islamic invaders took the Christian boys to a world totally foreign from their upbringing.
The new Christian boys were immediately turned over to the sultan. He was to be their king. They were his property – destined to form the sultan’s elite infantry units.
"Islamic law forbids that other Muslims be sold into slavery," Azziz told WorldNetDaily. "But not infidels."
A Turkish mosque in North Cyprus
Once the Janissaries had recovered from their long trek from the Balkans, they were put under both mental and physical tests by the Turks.
They were trained for eight years in archery, swordsmanship, horsemanship, wrestling and weightlifting. Some would go on to work on the estates of Turkish nobles as farmhands. Others learned skills like blacksmithing, masonry and carpentry.
The very best Janissaries were sent on to the sultan’s palace, where they would form his elite bodyguards. Presiding over this entire training process was the chief eunuch, who served the sultan with unwavering loyalty. The sultan called the Janissaries "my children." In the back of his mind, the sultan also knew that he was depleting the strength of his subjects in the Balkans and their ability to resist Ottoman occupation.
In time, some of these European Christian converts to Islam became leaders in the government and the military of the Ottoman Empire. Yet how was this possible?
Azziz believes he has the answer: "Constantine the Great and Diocletian were from Illyria in the Balkans and became great leaders in Roman times. As such, it is not surprising that the Janissaries carried on that intellectual tradition."
Another peripheral point is that, historically, the Crusaders were considered enemies of the Eastern Church in the Balkans – a rift the pope apologized for only this year. The ancestors of the families of the Balkan-born Janissaries hated the Romans from ancient times and directed that historical hatred at the pope, the Crusaders and even the Roman alphabet. It is also a phenomenon that has lasted into the present day.
In the year 1444, the pope called for a Holy War and a New Crusade. The pope was alarmed at the Muslim encroachment into Eastern Europe from Asia Minor.
The forces of Christendom were to soon have their first showdown with the Janissaries at the Battle of Varna. It was here that the sultan’s Janissaries faced off with the King of Hungary, French knights, a collection of European mercenaries and Vlad II – father of Vlad Tepes, who stood as a model for Bram Stoker's fictional "Dracula."
Riding and shooting accurately with bows and arrows on their camels and horses, the Janissaries won the battle of Varna. The King of Hungary was killed. Yet the victory came at great cost in blood and treasure to the Turks.
"May Allah never again grant me such a victory!" exclaimed the sultan.
About nine years after their victory at Varna, Memet II set his sights on Constantinople – the jewel of all Christian outposts in the Western world. He took up residence in a special castle six miles outside of Constantinople to prepare for the siege. The rulers of the city had set an iron chain across the "Golden Horn," which protected the harbor around Constantinople from invasion.
At the time, Constantinople was occupied by the remnant of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. The last emperor, Michael Paleologus, died fighting the Turks on the great city walls – which had been constructed a thousand years earlier by the Roman emperor Theodosius II. The Crusaders had taken the city by ruse in 1204 during what is sometimes referred to as the "businessman's crusade" and looted numerous items – many of which grace the city of Venice to this day. They were finally expelled by the Byzantine Greeks about 80 years later.
On April 2, 1453, the Islamic troops began their attack on the city, assaulting the walls around Constantinople. On the maritime front, Christian galleys burned Turk ships and killed 12,000 Islamic men. The Islamic admiral who presided over this debacle was whipped in pubic and all his money divided up amongst the Janissaries.
The sultan then ordered the rest of the Islamic naval vessels to be carried over land past the aforementioned chain around the Golden Horn. Over 10,000 Turks attacked the city the next day. The Janissaries took the city and Memet II made Constantinople the new capitol of Islam. He then changed the name of the city to Istanbul.
The Janissaries continued to train for war. They were, as slaves, forbidden to drink any alcohol, gamble or even to get married.
"They lived like monks trapped – albeit willingly – in a monastery," said Azziz.
To ensure the loyalty of the Janissaries, the sultan paid them bonuses, gave them a salary paid every three months and new clothing once per year. The Janissaries also were able to purchase almost any military weapons they wished for. Also, these elite fighters maintained their own treasury and commissary.
As they marched into Belgrade and Budapest to the beat of cymbals and drums, all of Christiandom trembled before them. (Under the direction of Suleyman the Magnificent, the Janissaries made it all the way into Austria).
The end of the Janissaries
By the year 1600, the ruling sultan needed more soldiers and mercenaries and slaves than ever. Unable to keep up with this growing need with the quota from the Balkans, he allowed – for the first time – Turks and native-born Muslims to enter the ranks of the Janissaries.
"This immediately destroyed the esprit de corps that had forged the fighting ethos of this elite unit," said Azziz. "The Janissaries then became involved in sexual relations with the sultan’s harem and also planned and carried out assassinations of the sultans."
In the early 1800s, Sultan Selim III tried to bring European-style military reforms to the Janissaries. In fact, Selim wanted to bring Turkey into modern times by imitating all things European. The Janissaries rebelled and killed Selim. In 1826, the Janissaries attempted a coup. The ruling sultan, Mahmud II, was outraged.
Mahmud II turned his cannons on the Janissaries trapped in their barracks at the Hippodrome near the Topkapi Palace.
"Over 4,000 Janissaries perished, yet they were a far cry from the corps of the loyal Christian converts who had served the Ottoman Empire so well throughout the centuries," concluded Azziz.
"It was a sad ending to a romantic and mysterious group of men. Yes, the Janissaries were a tough breed. Acts of desertion, cowardice and disobedience in their corps were punishable by death. The closest thing to the Janissaries in modern times, in my opinion, is the French Foreign Legion or, perhaps, the Ghurkas. We may never see their kind again."
Monday, July 11, 2005
Martyr with eleven companions in Lebanon
Bl. Emmanuel Ruiz Feastday: July 10
1860
Martyr with eleven companions in Lebanon. A Spanish Franciscan, Emmanuel and the others were caught up in the rising of the Druses in Lebanon. The Franciscan community, eight in number, and three Maronite laymen were slain by the Islamic rebels. He was beatified in 1926.
1860
Martyr with eleven companions in Lebanon. A Spanish Franciscan, Emmanuel and the others were caught up in the rising of the Druses in Lebanon. The Franciscan community, eight in number, and three Maronite laymen were slain by the Islamic rebels. He was beatified in 1926.
Saturday, July 09, 2005
Muslim Prayers
Five times a day a Muslim is bound to perform the Salaah, the fixed ritual of the Islamic prayer - worship.
He should properly go to the nearest mosque to offer his prayers together with the whole congregation. Each of the five periods is preceded by the adhaan (or azaan - ezan as it is more commonly called). The muezzin (mu'adh-dhin in Arabic) calls out on each occasion:
Allaabu Akbar (four times - "Allah is Most Great").
Ash'hadu an laa ilaaha illallaah (twice - "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah").
Ash'hadu anna Muhammadar-rasulullaah (twice - "I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah").
Haya 'alas-salaah (twice - "Come to prayer").
Ilaya 'alal falaah (twice - "Come to the good;').
Allaaku Akbar (twice - "Allah is Most Great").
Laa ilaaha illallaah (once - "There is no god but Allah").
After the call to the good during the Fajr prayer (just before dawn), the crier calls out twice: "Prayer is better than sleep".
Then follows the actual performance of prayer itself in which anything between two or four rituals (each one known as a rak'ah - a "bowing") are performed.
In addition to the five daily prayers there are the tahajjud prayers, a late-night ritual practiced by Muhammad but not commanded by him, as well as tarawih prayers after the last prayer, salautal-isha, during the month of Ramadan.
Furthermore on Fridays the great congregational prayer just after midday, the Juma prayer, replaces the midday prayer. In all of these the ritualistic performance of raka'at continues but, apart from these prescribed prayers, Muslims also have a more extemporaneous form of prayer, the dua. This takes the form either of set Arabic phrases or of personal devotions which may also be in Arabic or in the worshipper's language.
He should properly go to the nearest mosque to offer his prayers together with the whole congregation. Each of the five periods is preceded by the adhaan (or azaan - ezan as it is more commonly called). The muezzin (mu'adh-dhin in Arabic) calls out on each occasion:
Allaabu Akbar (four times - "Allah is Most Great").
Ash'hadu an laa ilaaha illallaah (twice - "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah").
Ash'hadu anna Muhammadar-rasulullaah (twice - "I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah").
Haya 'alas-salaah (twice - "Come to prayer").
Ilaya 'alal falaah (twice - "Come to the good;').
Allaaku Akbar (twice - "Allah is Most Great").
Laa ilaaha illallaah (once - "There is no god but Allah").
After the call to the good during the Fajr prayer (just before dawn), the crier calls out twice: "Prayer is better than sleep".
Then follows the actual performance of prayer itself in which anything between two or four rituals (each one known as a rak'ah - a "bowing") are performed.
In addition to the five daily prayers there are the tahajjud prayers, a late-night ritual practiced by Muhammad but not commanded by him, as well as tarawih prayers after the last prayer, salautal-isha, during the month of Ramadan.
Furthermore on Fridays the great congregational prayer just after midday, the Juma prayer, replaces the midday prayer. In all of these the ritualistic performance of raka'at continues but, apart from these prescribed prayers, Muslims also have a more extemporaneous form of prayer, the dua. This takes the form either of set Arabic phrases or of personal devotions which may also be in Arabic or in the worshipper's language.
Sunday, May 29, 2005
The Fall of Constantinople-2-May 29 1453
In the city everyone realized that the moment had come. During Monday, May 28, some last repairs were done on the walls and the stockades, were reinforced. In the city, while the bells of the churches rang mournfully, citizens and soldiers joined a long procession behind the holy relics brought out of the churches.
Singing hymns in Greek, Italian or Catalan. Orthodox and Catholic, men, women, children, soldiers, civilians, clergy, monks and nuns, knowing that they were going to die shortly, made peace with themselves, with God and with eternity.
When the procession ended the Emperor met with his commanders and the notables of the city. In a philosophical speech he told his subjects that the end of their time had come. In essence he told them that Man had to be ready to face death when he had to fight for his faith, for his country, for his family or for his sovereign.
All four reasons were now present.
Furthermore, his subjects, who were the descendants of Greeks and Romans, had to emulate their great ancestors.
They had to fight and sacrifice themselves without fear. They had lived in a great city and they were now going to die defending it. As for himself, he was going to die fighting for his faith, for his city and for his people. He also thanked the Italian soldiers, who had not abandoned the great city in its final moments. He still believed that the garrison could repulse the enemy. They all had to be brave, proud warriors and do their duty.
He thanked all present for their contribution to the defense of the city and asked them to forgive him, if he had ever treated them without kindness. Meanwhile the great Church of Saint Sophia was crowded. Thousands of people were moving towards the Church.
Inside, Orthodox and Catholic priests were holding mass.
People were singing hymns, others were openly crying, others were asking each other for forgiveness. Those who were not serving on the ramparts also went to the Church, among them was seen, for a brief moment, the Emperor.
People confessed and took communion.
Then those who were going to fight rode or walked back to the ramparts. From the great Church the Emperor rode to the Palace at Blachernae. There he asked his household to forgive him. He bade the emotionally shattered men and women farewell, left his Palace and rode away, into the night, for a last inspection of the defense positions.
Then he took his battle position.
The assault began after midnight, into the 29th of May 1453.
Wave after wave the attackers charged.
Battle cries, accompanied by the sound of drums, trumpets and fifes, filled the air.
The bells of the city churches began ringing frantically. Orders, screams and the sound of trumpets shattered the night.
First came the irregulars, an unreliable, multinational crowd of Moslems, who were attracted by the opportunity of enriching themselves by looting the great city, the last capital of the Roman Empire.
They attacked throughout the line of fortifications and the tough professionals, who were fighting under the orders of Giustiniani, massacred them.
The battle lasted two hours and the irregulars withdrew in disorder, leaving behind an unknown number of dead and wounded.
Next came the Anatolian troops of Ishak Pasha.
They tried to storm the stockades. They fought tenaciously, even desperately trying to break through the compact ranks of the defenders.
The narrow area in which fighting went on helped the defenders. They could hack left and right with their maces and swords and shoot missiles onto the mass of attackers without having to aim.
A group of attackers crashed through a gap and for a moment it seemed that they could enter the city. They were assaulted by the Emperor and his men and were soon slain.
This second attack also failed.
But now came the Janissaries, disciplined, professional, ruthless warriors, superbly trained, ready to die for their master, the Sultan. They assaulted the now exhausted defenders; they were pushing their way over bodies of dead and dying Moslem and Christian soldiers.
With tremendous effort the Greek and Italian fighters were hitting back and continued repulsing the enemy.
Then a group of enemy soldiers unexpectedly entered the city from a small sally-port called Kerkoporta, on the wall of Blachernae, where this wall joined the triple wall.
Fighting broke near the small gate with the defenders trying to eliminate the intruders.
It was almost day now, the first light, before sunrise, when a shot hit Giustiniani. It pierced his breastplate and he fell on the ground. Shaken by his wound and physically exhausted, his fighting spirit collapsed. Despite the pleas of the Emperor, who was fighting nearby, not to leave his post, the Genoese commander ordered his men to take him out of the battle-field.
A Gate in the inner wall was opened for the group of Genoese soldiers, who were carrying their wounded commander, to come into the city. The soldiers who were fighting near the area saw the Gate open, their comrades carrying their leader crossing into the city, and they though that the defense line had been broken. They all rushed through the Gate leaving the Emperor and the Greek fighters alone between the two walls.
This sudden movement did not escape the attention of the Ottoman commanders.
Frantic orders were issued to the troops to concentrate their attack on the weakened position. Thousands rushed to the area. The stockade was broken.
Crowds of Janissaries between the stockade and the wall now squeezed the Greeks. More Janissaries came in and many reached the inner wall. Meanwhile more were pouring in through the Kerkoporta, where the defenders had not been able to eliminate the first intruders.
Soon the first enemy flags were seen on the walls.
The Emperor and his commanders were trying frantically to rally their troops and push back the enemy.
It was too late.
Waves of Janissaries, followed by other regular units of the Ottoman army, were crashing through the open Gates, mixed with fleeing and slaughtered Christian soldiers.
Then the Emperor, realizing that everything was lost, removed his Imperial insignia and followed by his cousin Theophilus Palaeologus, the Castilian Don Francisco of Toledo and John Dalmatus, all four holding their swords, charged into the sea of the enemy soldiers, hitting left and right in a final act of defiance.
They were never seen again.
Now thousands of Ottoman soldiers were pouring into the city.
One after the other the city Gates were opened. The Ottoman flags began appearing on the walls, on the towers, on the Palace at Blachernae.
Civilians in panic were rushing to the churches.
Others locked themselves in their homes, some continued fighting in the streets, and crowds of Greeks and foreigners were rushing towards the port area.
The allied ships were still there and began collecting refugees. The Cretan soldiers and sailors, manning three towers near the entrance of the Golden Horn, were still fighting and had no intention of surrendering. At the end, the Ottoman commanders had to agree to a truce and let them sail away, carrying their arms.
Eyewitnesses describe the excesses that followed, during the early hours of the Ottoman victory, in detail.
They were and unfortunately still are, a common practice, almost a ritual, among all armies capturing enemy strongholds and territory after a prolonged and violent struggle.
Thus, bands of soldiers began now looting.
Doors were broken, private homes were looted, their tenants were massacred.
Shops in the city markets were looted.
Monasteries and Convents were broken in. Their tenants were killed, nuns were raped, many, to avoid dishonor, killed themselves.
Killing, raping, looting, burning, enslaving, went on and on according to tradition. The troops had to satisfy themselves.
The great doors of Saint Sophia were forced open, and crowds of angry soldiers came in and fell upon the unfortunate worshippers.
Pillaging and killing in the holy place went on for hours.
Similar was the fate of worshippers in most churches in the city.
The new masters of the Imperial capital took everything that could be taken from the splendid buildings. Icons were destroyed, precious manuscripts were lost forever.
Thousands of civilians were enslaved; soldiers fought over young boys and young women.
Death and enslavement did not distinguish among social classes. Nobles and peasants were treated with equal ruthlessness.
Meanwhile, the crews of the Ottoman fleet abandoned their ships to rush into the city. They were worried that the land army was going to take everything.
The collapse of discipline gave the Christian ships time to sail out of the Golden Horn. Venetian, Genoese and Greek ships, loaded with refugees, some of them having reached the ships swimming from the city, sailed away to freedom. On one of the Genoese vessels was Giustiniani. He was taken from the boat at Chios where he died, from his wound, a few days later.
The Sultan, with his top commanders and his guard of Janissaries, entered the city in the afternoon of the first day of occupation.
Constantinople was finally his and he intended to make it the capital of his mighty Empire. He toured the ruined city. He visited Saint Sophia, which he ordered to be turned into a mosque. He also ordered an end to the killing.
What he saw was desolation, destruction, death in the streets, ruins and desecrated churches. It was too much. It is said that, as he rode through the streets of the former capital of the Christian Roman Empire, the city of Constantine, moved to tears he murmured:
"What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction".
Singing hymns in Greek, Italian or Catalan. Orthodox and Catholic, men, women, children, soldiers, civilians, clergy, monks and nuns, knowing that they were going to die shortly, made peace with themselves, with God and with eternity.
When the procession ended the Emperor met with his commanders and the notables of the city. In a philosophical speech he told his subjects that the end of their time had come. In essence he told them that Man had to be ready to face death when he had to fight for his faith, for his country, for his family or for his sovereign.
All four reasons were now present.
Furthermore, his subjects, who were the descendants of Greeks and Romans, had to emulate their great ancestors.
They had to fight and sacrifice themselves without fear. They had lived in a great city and they were now going to die defending it. As for himself, he was going to die fighting for his faith, for his city and for his people. He also thanked the Italian soldiers, who had not abandoned the great city in its final moments. He still believed that the garrison could repulse the enemy. They all had to be brave, proud warriors and do their duty.
He thanked all present for their contribution to the defense of the city and asked them to forgive him, if he had ever treated them without kindness. Meanwhile the great Church of Saint Sophia was crowded. Thousands of people were moving towards the Church.
Inside, Orthodox and Catholic priests were holding mass.
People were singing hymns, others were openly crying, others were asking each other for forgiveness. Those who were not serving on the ramparts also went to the Church, among them was seen, for a brief moment, the Emperor.
People confessed and took communion.
Then those who were going to fight rode or walked back to the ramparts. From the great Church the Emperor rode to the Palace at Blachernae. There he asked his household to forgive him. He bade the emotionally shattered men and women farewell, left his Palace and rode away, into the night, for a last inspection of the defense positions.
Then he took his battle position.
The assault began after midnight, into the 29th of May 1453.
Wave after wave the attackers charged.
Battle cries, accompanied by the sound of drums, trumpets and fifes, filled the air.
The bells of the city churches began ringing frantically. Orders, screams and the sound of trumpets shattered the night.
First came the irregulars, an unreliable, multinational crowd of Moslems, who were attracted by the opportunity of enriching themselves by looting the great city, the last capital of the Roman Empire.
They attacked throughout the line of fortifications and the tough professionals, who were fighting under the orders of Giustiniani, massacred them.
The battle lasted two hours and the irregulars withdrew in disorder, leaving behind an unknown number of dead and wounded.
Next came the Anatolian troops of Ishak Pasha.
They tried to storm the stockades. They fought tenaciously, even desperately trying to break through the compact ranks of the defenders.
The narrow area in which fighting went on helped the defenders. They could hack left and right with their maces and swords and shoot missiles onto the mass of attackers without having to aim.
A group of attackers crashed through a gap and for a moment it seemed that they could enter the city. They were assaulted by the Emperor and his men and were soon slain.
This second attack also failed.
But now came the Janissaries, disciplined, professional, ruthless warriors, superbly trained, ready to die for their master, the Sultan. They assaulted the now exhausted defenders; they were pushing their way over bodies of dead and dying Moslem and Christian soldiers.
With tremendous effort the Greek and Italian fighters were hitting back and continued repulsing the enemy.
Then a group of enemy soldiers unexpectedly entered the city from a small sally-port called Kerkoporta, on the wall of Blachernae, where this wall joined the triple wall.
Fighting broke near the small gate with the defenders trying to eliminate the intruders.
It was almost day now, the first light, before sunrise, when a shot hit Giustiniani. It pierced his breastplate and he fell on the ground. Shaken by his wound and physically exhausted, his fighting spirit collapsed. Despite the pleas of the Emperor, who was fighting nearby, not to leave his post, the Genoese commander ordered his men to take him out of the battle-field.
A Gate in the inner wall was opened for the group of Genoese soldiers, who were carrying their wounded commander, to come into the city. The soldiers who were fighting near the area saw the Gate open, their comrades carrying their leader crossing into the city, and they though that the defense line had been broken. They all rushed through the Gate leaving the Emperor and the Greek fighters alone between the two walls.
This sudden movement did not escape the attention of the Ottoman commanders.
Frantic orders were issued to the troops to concentrate their attack on the weakened position. Thousands rushed to the area. The stockade was broken.
Crowds of Janissaries between the stockade and the wall now squeezed the Greeks. More Janissaries came in and many reached the inner wall. Meanwhile more were pouring in through the Kerkoporta, where the defenders had not been able to eliminate the first intruders.
Soon the first enemy flags were seen on the walls.
The Emperor and his commanders were trying frantically to rally their troops and push back the enemy.
It was too late.
Waves of Janissaries, followed by other regular units of the Ottoman army, were crashing through the open Gates, mixed with fleeing and slaughtered Christian soldiers.
Then the Emperor, realizing that everything was lost, removed his Imperial insignia and followed by his cousin Theophilus Palaeologus, the Castilian Don Francisco of Toledo and John Dalmatus, all four holding their swords, charged into the sea of the enemy soldiers, hitting left and right in a final act of defiance.
They were never seen again.
Now thousands of Ottoman soldiers were pouring into the city.
One after the other the city Gates were opened. The Ottoman flags began appearing on the walls, on the towers, on the Palace at Blachernae.
Civilians in panic were rushing to the churches.
Others locked themselves in their homes, some continued fighting in the streets, and crowds of Greeks and foreigners were rushing towards the port area.
The allied ships were still there and began collecting refugees. The Cretan soldiers and sailors, manning three towers near the entrance of the Golden Horn, were still fighting and had no intention of surrendering. At the end, the Ottoman commanders had to agree to a truce and let them sail away, carrying their arms.
Eyewitnesses describe the excesses that followed, during the early hours of the Ottoman victory, in detail.
They were and unfortunately still are, a common practice, almost a ritual, among all armies capturing enemy strongholds and territory after a prolonged and violent struggle.
Thus, bands of soldiers began now looting.
Doors were broken, private homes were looted, their tenants were massacred.
Shops in the city markets were looted.
Monasteries and Convents were broken in. Their tenants were killed, nuns were raped, many, to avoid dishonor, killed themselves.
Killing, raping, looting, burning, enslaving, went on and on according to tradition. The troops had to satisfy themselves.
The great doors of Saint Sophia were forced open, and crowds of angry soldiers came in and fell upon the unfortunate worshippers.
Pillaging and killing in the holy place went on for hours.
Similar was the fate of worshippers in most churches in the city.
The new masters of the Imperial capital took everything that could be taken from the splendid buildings. Icons were destroyed, precious manuscripts were lost forever.
Thousands of civilians were enslaved; soldiers fought over young boys and young women.
Death and enslavement did not distinguish among social classes. Nobles and peasants were treated with equal ruthlessness.
Meanwhile, the crews of the Ottoman fleet abandoned their ships to rush into the city. They were worried that the land army was going to take everything.
The collapse of discipline gave the Christian ships time to sail out of the Golden Horn. Venetian, Genoese and Greek ships, loaded with refugees, some of them having reached the ships swimming from the city, sailed away to freedom. On one of the Genoese vessels was Giustiniani. He was taken from the boat at Chios where he died, from his wound, a few days later.
The Sultan, with his top commanders and his guard of Janissaries, entered the city in the afternoon of the first day of occupation.
Constantinople was finally his and he intended to make it the capital of his mighty Empire. He toured the ruined city. He visited Saint Sophia, which he ordered to be turned into a mosque. He also ordered an end to the killing.
What he saw was desolation, destruction, death in the streets, ruins and desecrated churches. It was too much. It is said that, as he rode through the streets of the former capital of the Christian Roman Empire, the city of Constantine, moved to tears he murmured:
"What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction".
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